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\begin_body

\begin_layout Subject
IGCSE History (0470) Depth Studies
\end_layout

\begin_layout Title
Depth Study A: The First World War
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subtitle
Revision for Examinations in 2024–2026
\end_layout

\begin_layout Author
Jamie Weng, Runxi Yu, Aaron Zhang
\end_layout

\begin_layout Date
Updated 
\begin_inset ERT
status open

\begin_layout Plain Layout


\backslash
DTMnow
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\end_layout

\begin_layout Section*
Disclaimer
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
In no event unless required by applicable law will any copyright holder,
 author, or any other party, be liable to you for damages, including any
 general, special, incidental or consequential damages arising out of the
 use or inability to use this document (including but not limited to loss
 of sanity or your knowledge being rendered inaccurate or losses sustained
 by you or third parties), even if such holder, author, or other party has
 been advised of the possibility of such damages.
 If the disclaimer and limitation of liability hereby provided cannot be
 given local legal effect according to their terms, reviewing courts shall
 apply local law that most closely approximates an absolute waiver of all
 civil liability in connection with this document.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Section*
Copyright
\end_layout

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{
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\begin_layout Section*
Abbreviations and Conventions
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\begin_layout Itemize
k = thousand, M = million, B = billion
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\begin_layout Itemize
G = Germany, F = France, B = Britain, R = Russia
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
G
\begin_inset Formula $n$
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 = German 
\begin_inset Formula $n$
\end_inset

th army, etc.
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\begin_layout Itemize
C = casualties, D = deaths
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\begin_layout Itemize
S = summer, W = winter
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
w/ = with
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\begin_layout Itemize
occ = occupy, adv = advance, att = attack, cap = capture, ret = retreat,
 etc.
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\begin_layout Itemize
Dates are YYYY/MM[/DD]
\end_layout

\begin_layout Section*
Information
\end_layout

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The canonical version of this document uses the 9-point Cantarell font family,
 because it looks nice and familiar, there aren't licensing issues, and
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Repo: 
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status open

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https://git.runxiyu.org/runxiyu/current/igcse.git
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View the latest 
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.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Some parts were copied from revision materials by Diego Ge, Amaris Wen,
 and Tiger Lv.
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\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
There are long lines copied from legacy resources.
 These have to be cleaned up.
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\begin_layout Section
Stalemate on the Western Front
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The Schlieffen Plan
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Original plan by Schlieffen in 1905 to avoid a two-front war
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Attack France through Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, and capture
 Paris within six weeks
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\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Changed by Moltke
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\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Enter through Belgium only, rather than Belgium + Netherlands + Luxembourg
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Allocate fewer soldiers to the Western front 
\begin_inset Note Note
status open

\begin_layout Plain Layout

\lang english
data?
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\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Use conscripts 
\begin_inset Note Note
status open

\begin_layout Plain Layout

\lang english
what?
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\end_inset


\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
More direct route to Paris across Marne instead of surrounding capture
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Belgian resistance
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Strongest fortresses in Europe 
\begin_inset Note Note
status open

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\lang english
what?
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\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Siege of Liege took 12 days while the Germans expected it to fall in 
\begin_inset Note Note
status open

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\lang english
?
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\begin_layout Itemize
100k soldiers were diverted to Antwerp which was of minimal military value
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Exhausted resources and lowered German morale 
\begin_inset Note Note
status open

\begin_layout Plain Layout

\lang english
?
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\end_inset


\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Russian mobilization
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Took less than 3 weeks instead of the anticipated 6 weeks
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Forced Germany to send 100k soldiers to the Eastern front
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The Battle of Mons (see 
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)
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Encountered the British Expeditionary Force (professional soldiers) aiming
 to slow the Germans down
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Tactic: A group of soldiers at the back of the retreating army to halt German
 advance while others travel to Mons 
\begin_inset Note Note
status open

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\lang english
what?
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\end_inset


\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
BEF walked 15 miles/day with heavy resource packs
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Casualties: 1600 British, 6000 German
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Delayed Germans for 48 hours
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The Battle of the Marne (see 
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)
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Effective french leadership leadership, high morale
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Importantly, Joffre reorganized troops
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
German advance halted because of the gap-splitting by the French and the
 BEF
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Germans retreated back to Aisne
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Paris was not captured, the Schlieffen Plan has failed
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
Belgian Resistance
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Liege, 1914/08/05–16, 10 days with 17-inch howitzers to take down 12 heavily
 fortified forts
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Divert 125k from Ypres to Antwerp of no value, 09/04–10/10
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Polder county flood, G cannot breakthrough @ coast e.g.
 ports of Calais & Dunkirk 
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\backslash
textrightarrow{}
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\end_inset

 B safe supply transport
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
6 Belgian divisions, held up 34 German divisions for half a month
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
SP reach Paris mid-Sept; Belgium fell mid-Oct; B & F opportunity strengthen
 line @ Mons, Marne
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
Early Action of the BEF
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The BEF landed in Calais and Boulogne within 3 days of the declaration of
 war.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Two divisions remained in Britain in case there was a German invasion.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Engaged the German Army at Mons on the 23rd of August with rifle fire powerful
 enough for the Germans to confuse them for machine guns, and inflicted
 heavy German casualties.
 The BEF then retreated to a second defensive line because of the weight
 of German numbers.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Battle at Elouges on 24th of August — very costly for the BEF.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The BEF continued to slow down the Schlieffen Plan when engaging the Germans
 at Le Cateau.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
At Etreux on the 27th of August, the BEF held the Sambre Canal against German
 forces.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Retreated 400 km to the River Marne.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The Battle of Mons
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
22 August, 1914
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
BEF
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Led by Sir John French
\begin_inset Foot
status open

\begin_layout Plain Layout
Please do indeed note that Sir John French is British, not French.
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\end_inset


\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Arrived, stationed from Alsace–Lorraine to southern Belgium
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
2 corps into four divisions with 24 machine guns
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Battalions with howitzers
\begin_inset Foot
status open

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howitzer: a short gun for firing shells on high trajectories at low velocities.
\end_layout

\end_inset

 and pounder guns
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Stood in the way of the German 1st Army (the outermost wing)
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
German
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
1st army: 4 active corps under von Kluck
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
2nd army: under von Bülow
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Reports arrived that the British crossed the canal
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
German IX Corps advanced towards there and encountered French troops; German
 commanders ordered preparation of attacks but were ordered to be halted
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
23 August, 1914
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
09:00, German troops concentrated on the British salient formed by the loop
 of the canal and attempted to force through, advancing in close columns
 and therefore stiff losses under trained BEF's heavy rifle fire
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
German troops switched to open formation and outnumbered the Royal Irish
 Fusiliers at the bridges, but the RIF maintained their line with reinforcements
 and divisional artillery
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Germans expanded the attack from the west of the salient to British defense
 along the straight part of the canal using plantations as cover but were
 still repulsed by the British when 100m apart
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Afternoon, British positions became unstable; German IX corps crossed the
 canal by force, building pontoon bridges to approach the British; the French
 fifth army retreated, exposing the BEF's flank
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
24 August, 1914
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Had to fight off rearguard action; battalions that weren't involved in heavy
 fighting before were chosen
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Sir French gave up; retreated to defensible positions in France
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Battle of Mons halted German advance until the morning of the 25th; delayed
 by a total of about 2 days, hampers Schlieffen Plan; gave time for the
 French to prepare at the Marne
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
Early Russian Mobilization
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Germany was forced to withdraw troops from the Western Front to counter
 Russian advances.
 Although Ludendorff did not see the necessity of assistance, Moltke sent
 troops to Russia.
 The ratio of German soldiers at the Western and Eastern front was reduced
 from 10:1 to 8:1.
 (Diverted 125,000 soldiers to the Eastern Front) Meaning that less soldiers
 can be used at the western front.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
It was a Pyrrhic victory for Germany: Germany used too many resources for
 these few battles that were not significant.
 14,000 German soldiers were killed or wounded at the battle of Tannenberg
 and 30,000 at the Masurian Lake.
 The territory on the eastern front wasn’t as important.
 This wasted manpower and supplies.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The Battle of the Marne
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
G within 50km of Paris; rapid advance / outran supply
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Moltke approves Kluck's request to assist Bülow; abandoned plan to surround
 Paris
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
B/F exausted by 12 days ret; Joffre directed them south of Marne, rearranged
 troops realizing that Plan XVII won't work
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
09/05: F left wing attacked exposed G right flank; French recon aircraft
 spot gap between G1 & G2; B & F5 advanced into that gap
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
By 09/07: 6k F soldiers transported to front via 600 taxis
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Sep 8th: F5 surprise attack on G2, widen gap
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Sep 9th: Bülow worried about ally breakthrough, ordered retreat; complicated
 by inability to communicate with Kluck and his heart disease
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Kluck forced to also retreat; G1 & G2 dug in at Aisne, marked beginning
 of TW
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
SP failed, Moltke to Kaiser 
\begin_inset Quotes eld
\end_inset

Your Majesty, we have lost the war
\begin_inset Quotes erd
\end_inset


\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
C: 250k F/G, 13k B
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Importance: beginning of trenches (yes, they dug in at the Aisne)
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The Race to the Sea
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Significance
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
Trenches:
\series default
 The race to the sea started when Germany tried to outflank the allied forces.
 Due to the slaughter of the first month of the war the commanders on the
 ground were not interested in large offensives.
 So they dug trenches as a way of outflanking the allied forces.
 They tried to enveloped the allied trenches to occupy more grounds so the
 allied forces started extending their trenches.
 So they dug trenches while heading towards the coast.
 475 miles of trenches were built.
 The 475 miles of trenches meant that there were little points where breakthroug
hs could be made (only at Verdun and a few points on the coast) This meant
 that any attempts for offensives would be predictable and easily defended.
 
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
The 1st Battle of Ypres
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Background incl.
 Race to the Sea
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Germans retreated from the Marne and dug in at the Aisne for defense.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Allies want to retake Lille in France and Brussels in Belgium; Germans wanted
 to capture the ports of Dunkirk, Calais, and Boulogne
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
German troops and the BEF attempted to outflank each other to the north.
 Falkenhayn switched their focus to the Swiss border.
\begin_inset Note Note
status collapsed

\begin_layout Plain Layout

\lang english
?
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\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Both sides dug into trenches while attempting to outflank each other, leaving
 475 miles of trenches.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
7 British divisions vs 14 German divisions; each German division had twice
 as many guns and ten times as much artillery
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Stalemate
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Flood in late October to attempt to halt German advance
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
British had to conserve ammunition so they had to allow the Germans to get
 exceptionally close; this led to high British casualties
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
31 October, Germans realized that the British do not have enough soldiers
 to hold a continuous front; launched a massive attack that broke the allied
 line; but the British regrouped with the assistance of the French and took
 back the land
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
11 November, another German attack, British line breached but all available
 forces (including the Indian Expeditionary Force A) held the town long
 enough for the attack to die away later
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Both sides proved to be of similar power and could not afford or defend
 another assault and continued to dig in
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Ports Dunkirk and Calais were still in entente control; the British could
 bring resources from the British mainland
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Results
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
15 November, failed final German assault; heavy rain and snow; Falkenhayn
 ordered retreat; defensive on Western front, sent most troops to the East
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
85k British casualties — destroyed the professional BEF
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
58k French casualties
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
130k German casualties, mostly inexperienced volunteers, 
\begin_inset Quotes eld
\end_inset

the Massacre of Innocents
\begin_inset Quotes erd
\end_inset


\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Importance
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Naval: This was significant since Ypres was a strategically important location
 for both sides, they all wanted to establish control of the sea.
 It was the junction of roads leading to the Channel ports, Dunkirk, Boulogne
 and Calais (facing the British Channel) and it was the fortification guarding
 the access to the North Sea beyond.
 It was at the Ypres where the communication lines with Britain was the
 shortest, so the British had to hold on to it or else it would lose its
 ports for supplying its troops.
 If Germany won, they could have cut the majority of British reinforcements.
 The channel coast was deemed a strategic priority, and after the First
 Battle of Ypres, German advance was halted, the city remained in allied
 hands, meaning that British supplies and troops could be transported efficientl
y with the ports available
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Stalemate, expectations:The Battle demonstrated that both sides were quite
 equal in terms of power, so breakthrough could not be achieved immediately.
 Thus, both sides settled into trenches.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Casualties: The British Expeditionary Force ceased to be a functional army
 after the First Battle of Ypres due to heavy loss.
 The British took 58,000 casualties at Ypres which adds to their losses
 in previous battles.
 The BEF was only a small army with about 100,000 soldiers at the start
 of war, so about half of the British soldiers were wounded or killed in
 this battle.
 By the end of the First Battle of Ypres, the majority of the well-trained
 British soldiers were killed and Britain will have to use raw recruits
 as replacements.
 ⅘ of the BEF was wiped out (According to Guns of August) About 85,000 French
 soldiers and 134,000 German soldiers were killed or wounded in the battle.
 After the battle, neither side had the reserves to sustain offensives to
 make breakthroughs so a deadlock developed.
 The First Battle of Ypres became the last major battle before the stalemate
 and was a major cause of the stalemate making it significant in the events
 of 1914.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Trenches: As both sides built trenches towards the sea, the only realistic
 place to move to and make breakthroughs was Ypres.
 After the Ypres, both sides reinforced trenches and dug in.
 This resulted in the following situation: French held 430 miles, Belgium
 15 and British 21; but all the attacking took place between Verdun and
 the Coast and even then there were only a few points where attack was possible.
 Attack became very predictable, easier to defend.
 
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
Stalemate, Attrition, Trenches
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
New weapons such as the machine gun and artillery made a defensive war easier
 than a war of movement The revolution of firepower caused huge casualties
 and they had to build trenches for protection.
 War was being waged in a very different way than it had been in the 19th
 century.
 The traditional forward moving strategies such as head-on infantry were
 no longer effective towards modern weapons such as machine guns and artillery.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
The machine gun being very important
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Machine Guns with a firing rate of 400-600 rounds per minute kills a large
 number of concentrated troops and creates a dead zone altogether with Barbed
 Wires that can easily cut through human body and concentrate enemies against
 machine gun fire.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1 machine gun fire rate was equivalent to 100 rifles.
 
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Artillery: German 12 inches gun could fire 40km.
 Caused 70% of the casualties.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Trenches
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The trench condition produced low morale and undermined the soldiers’ ability
 to attack.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Trenches can provide a shelter from the hail of bullets and offer protection.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The unchanging routine, foods and clothes had exhausted the soldier’s enthusiasm
 and dedication to the army.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The commanders on both sides planned small unorganized attacks to stop the
 men from getting downcast or bored and the soldiers got rewarded for their
 kills during the trench raid.
 It never satisfies the soldiers but instead creates immense horror and
 means that the soldiers could barely allow themselves to rest under the
 harsh time table.
 Soldiers felt that their life was risked on meaningless things.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Artillery, waterlogging caused huge psychological impacts.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
All these caused ineffective efforts and conditions for the soldiers to
 attack.
 Fatigue and boredom.
 
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Crossing no-man's land was difficult
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Machine guns, barbed wire
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Soldiers had poor artillery cover.
 Some of them had hit on themselves in Somme.
 The artillery mismatched the speed of the marching soldiers and even destroyed
 some British troops, as it assumed the infantry would move 55 yards a minute.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The soldiers could not move quickly when overloaded with 66 pounds of equipment
 (nearly 30 kg), this is unrealistic for soldiers to make a breakthrough
 and follow up with the barrage.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
Tactical Errors
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Haig believed victory would be a long difficult struggle achieved through
 many casualties.
 This is partially right because defence was easier than attacking, but
 this prevented him from thinking of minimizing the casualties.
 He abandoned the cover and fire and used human waves and creeping barrage
 in Somme.
 The artillery failed to destroy enemy trenches and some were hitting their
 own troops, thus, the soldiers were left exposed under intense machine
 gun fire.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
In Formells, the Australians had 1,708 killed, 4000 wounded and 400 imprisoned
 in one day.
 The Germans had less than 1500 casualties.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Falkenhayn had the chance to break the stalemate.
 Germany had the opportunity for an early victory.
 However, the planned attack was delayed 11 days and Falkenhayn did not
 allow attacks on both sides of the Meuse.
 Even so Germany launched an attack with 140,000 soldiers against only 30,000
 French defenders.
 If the Germans had decisively advanced earlier, they could have moved through
 the wooded hills behind Verdun before the French had time to establish
 defences.
 There was no other obvious place for defence between Verdun and Paris.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
New Weapons and Technology
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
TODO: Clean up
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
Tanks
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Breaking trench defence.
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Armour could withstand standard rifle and machine-gun fire at first; allowed
 advancing infantry to have protection from enemy fire.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Cambrai was a stunning victory using 734 tanks.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
On the 4th of July at Le Hamel, the Australians used tanks to seize the
 German trenches in just 93 minutes
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Psychological significance
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Tanks provided a morale boost to the allies as it provided cover during
 attacks and could move through barbed wire.
 The infantry felt safe to move behind them and break through the barbed
 wire.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Whipper tanks cause chaos and German soldiers feel powerless facing the
 armoured tanks.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Numerical advantage o British tank production (6,000: 20).
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The mass and volume of the tank still creates a sense of devastation (especially
 when they were concentrated) to the German defenders despite when they
 had anti-tank tactics.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Anti-tank tactics became less effective when facing huge concentration of
 tanks deployed and followed by infantry.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Combined arms strength
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The British also masked the sound of 500 tanks and other vehicles, by covering
 the roads with straw and covering the wheels with ropes, while 200 aircrafts
 harassed Germans soldiers on the ground, and attack supplies and reinforcements
 to the front.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The allied tanks were able to overrun the German frontlines and easily took
 down the German machine gun posts.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Failures
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The environment inside was very hot and smoky, and there were 4 people driving,
 which makes it uncoordinated and not manoeuvrable.
 Primary tanks were vulnerable under direct hits by artillery.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
At Passchendaele they have sunk into the mud, and they never reached their
 intended speed of 4 miles an hour.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Broke down.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Piecemeal deployment of tanks meant that tanks were not always viewed as
 the breakthrough weapon – Germans only built 20 tanks in total.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The Germans had published manuals on how to destroy a tank within a week
 and quickly developed an anti-tank rifle.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
Artillery
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The Germans used 12-inch guns and large rail guns to bombard French cities
 and fortresses from over 100km away, while they could easily destroy gun
 posts, machine guns and even enemy artillery.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
At the start of the battle of Verdun, the poorly constructed French trench
 system collapsed under German shells.
 This weakens the enemy’s ability to cause immense casualties and pins the
 defenders down into their trenches and allows the German stormtroopers
 to follow behind the barrage, heavily armed with flamethrowers and grenades
 to eliminate the dysfunctional manual defence in the trenches.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
It prevented the enemy from launching an effective attack on land which
 diminished the speed of taking advance.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
During the war, the casualty rate between the defenders and attackers was
 1:3.
 Artillery also caused almost 70% of the war casualties for the first half
 of the war and the highest casualties in the entire war.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Creates a death zone and posts a huge threat to human wave tactics.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Manpower was really precious to the countries in the war.
 They needed to maintain adequate man power for the battle to increase the
 chance to win.
 In order to prevent high casualties of their own force, neither side was
 tempted to launch attacks first—it made both sides impossible to achieve
 a quick breakthrough in 1914.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
During Somme and Verdun, a huge quantity of shells and artilleries were
 manufactured.
 They posed huge threat to large squares of infantries and they caused about
 70% of the casualties in the First World War and even a higher proportion
 among the 700,000 in Verdun and 800,000 in Somme.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Shockwaves causing death in 6 feets and splinters causing a death zone.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
When the French combined with better infantry tactics and a greater concentratio
n of artillery in Somme, they took 3,000 German prisoners and capture 80
 guns on the first day despite the lack of French soldiers.
 Leading to a shortage in manpower on both sides and forces them to take
 defensive positions.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Preliminary bombardment was commonly used by the commanders to bombard enemy
 defenses with heavy artillery.
 In Somme, the strategy was totally unsuccessful as the 7-day long shelling
 in the battle of Somme failed to inflict heavy casualties and clear the
 barbed wire.
 Instead, it informed the opponent that an attack was imminent.
 The British bombardment before the attack had been largely ineffective
 and useless.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Creeping barrage required a precise timing and a well coordination between
 the artillery and the infantry, or the soldiers would be killed by their
 own artilleries.
 Creeping barrage was used as an effective tactic when the commander had
 a specific objective.
 However, it failed to achieve a breakthrough in the Western Front until
 1918.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
Machine guns
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Firepower
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Machine guns could fire more than 400 rounds per minute.
 This was equivalent to 100 rifles at that time.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Operation only needed a maximum of 3-4 people.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The machine guns were able to cause 75,000 French casualties at the first
 month of the war when the French attack the German defences in the battle
 of frontiers.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
It forced the defenders to bog down into the trenches and remain static.
 Due to their weight of around 60–70 kg and the required ammunition and
 manpower (2–3 people to operate and 4 people to move at the speed of walking),
 early machine guns can only be positioned on defence.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Tactical errors
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
Aircraft
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Spotting the Marne gap
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
Gas
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Phosgene was responsible for 85% of gas attack deaths.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Later, mustard gas which was designed to disable the enemies rather than
 killing them directly.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
They can remain active for several weeks in the trenches and more than 2
 days even in opened grounds like the no-man's land
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
It disables the targets, causes irritation to the skin, blindness or slowly
 kills the victim over weeks.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
It led to the development of gas masks on both sides and warning bells.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Failed to break the stalemate.
 The equipment of gas masks allowed the stalemate to continue.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Despite its cruel nature, the gases only caused 4% of the casualties in
 the war.
 Only 3% of British deaths were from Gas, while Germany used 64,000 tons.
 At that time, it’s more likely to be a waste of resources.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
In all sides of the battle, the gases were blown back to the attackers.
 It depends too much on the weather.
\series bold

\begin_inset Note Note
status open

\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
Significance
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Huge casualties caused a manpower crisis
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
It provided immense firepower advantage for the defenders.
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Machine guns could fire more than 400 rounds per minute.
 This was equivalent to 100 rifles at that time.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Plain Layout
Operation only needed a maximum of 3-4 people.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Plain Layout
During the war, the casualty rate between the defenders and attackers was
 1:3.
 Artillery also caused almost 70% of the war casualties for the first half
 of the war and the highest casualties in the entire war.
 760,000 in Verdun and 800,000 in Somme.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Plain Layout
Shockwaves causing death in 6 feets and splinters causing a death zone.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Plain Layout
More than 80,000 casualties at Ypres added to the trenches made mobile warfare
 impossible.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Altogether this caused a manpower crisis on both sides after the first battle
 of Ypres which forced them to take defensive positions and start the stalemate.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\end_inset


\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
Not that significant
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Morale began to slip when the soldiers found themselves difficult to advance
 in trench warfare due to the lack of footwear supplies.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Weapons cannot function well when there wasn’t enough oil and clothes to
 clean them.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The shortage in nitrates and explosives caused some ammunition failing to
 detonate.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The lack in high-quality steels caused the quality of helmets and guns that
 there were examples of Mousers stuck or even break when loading.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The lack of horses and vehicles meant that soldiers cannot follow up and
 solidify their advances and this have made breakthroughs meaningless as
 the lands will be quickly regained back and forth.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
The Battle of Verdun
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Account
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Falkenhayn: Bleed France white; pride, symbolic meaning, defeat
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Removal of 5 artillery groups, leaving some forts defenseless
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Falkenhayn hesitant, delayed 11 days, no early victory
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Joffre heard about attack, reinforce F2; Draint led 2 battalions at the
 tip of Verdun salient, 1M G attackers to 200k F defenders
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1916/02/21: Price Wilhelm 21-hour bombard 40km, 100k shell/hour, intent
 kill defenders before infantry advance; G scouts reported that half of
 the French remained; bombardment renewed (which also allowed F to reposition
 to enfilade G); only succeeded in capturing F front line trenches, F battalions
 600 
\begin_inset ERT
status open

\begin_layout Plain Layout


\backslash
textrightarrow{}
\end_layout

\end_inset

 180, commanders such as Draint died
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
02/24: G overran 2nd French line, EXCEPT Vaux & Douaumont
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
02/25: Lost Douaumont (which was defended by 56 part-time gunners), low
 morale but became politically impossible to withdraw
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Joffre appointed Petain as commander; Petain reorganized command, over-competes
 German artillery performance; Petain 3500 trucks / 6000 vehicles total,
 the 80km/6m Sacred Way; 90k soldiers, 25kt supplies, casualties; 70% people
 = 259/330 divisions fought at Verdun
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Orig F planned each soldier: 4 days front line, 4 days second line, 8 days
 rest; but many worked 16 straight at front line; G rotation even less effective
 than F
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
04/09: 3rd German offensive; F Petain promoted, replaced by Nivelle
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
05/29: Vaux fell; G almost succeeded in breaking the French line, phosgene
 gas used; 15 German divisions withdrawn from Verdun to aid Brusilov
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
06/23: 4km from Verdun, G could not advance; 7/11, 8/1, 9/3 attacks failed
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Almost all land that G took was conquered back at the end of the battle;
 10/24 Douaumont regained, 11/2 Vaux regained
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
C: 377k F, 337k G
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Significance
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The heavy losses at Verdun combined with even greater casualties suffered
 on the Somme to create a manpower crisis within the G army that would become
 increasingly difficult to resolve as the war continued.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Weakened French morale
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The French learnt important lessons on the use of artillery, defending in
 depth, creeping from bombardments and rotating its troops.
 The 4 French divisions achieved their objectives at the Somme, using tactics
 the Germans had used on them at Verdun.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Petain’s rotational system was proven successful.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Somme.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
The Battle of the Somme
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
B planned for 08/01, moved to 07/01 to relieve Verdun; diverted 15 G divisions
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
07/01
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Heavy prelim bombardment, 1.7M shells with 1500 guns, Rawlinson (B commander)
 
\begin_inset Quotes eld
\end_inset

the infantry would only have to walk over and take possession
\begin_inset Quotes erd
\end_inset

, Haig 
\begin_inset Quotes eld
\end_inset

not a rat will survive
\begin_inset Quotes erd
\end_inset

, optimism; reality: > 50% did not detonate; bunkers and barbed wire; alert
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
11 B divisions attacked north of Somme (24km front), F 5 divisions with
 900 heavy guns attack south (13km front) where G defense was less developed
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Infantry 750k, 85% are BEF; vs 16 G divisions; Pal's battalions; 30kg equipment
 each carrying tools, walk 
\begin_inset Quotes eld
\end_inset

at a steady pace
\begin_inset Quotes erd
\end_inset


\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
G 
\begin_inset Quotes eld
\end_inset

we didn't have to aim, we just fired into them
\begin_inset Quotes erd
\end_inset


\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
57k casualties, 20k deaths
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
(Falkenhayn was replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff)
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
07/11
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Rawlinson secured G line 1
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
More G troops transferred from Verdun
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Haig convinced that G exhausted & breakthrough was imminent; was wrong;
 adopted attrition
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
09/15
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
F10 joined on 20km front to south
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
B renew offense north-east
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
First use of tanks at Flers–Courcelette, gained less than 1km, mechanical
 failures 50 to 24, unreliable, 
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
11/13 at the Ancre, BEF made final effort, captured field fort of Beaumont
 Hamel
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Halt on 11/18 due to snow; battle ended after 141 days, gained 12km, linebreak
 fail; Butcher
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
C: 420k B, 200k F, 500k G
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Significance of the Battle
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Without the Somme, it’s hard to imagine the French surviving the Battle
 of 
\series bold
Verdun
\series default
.
 After the first day of the Somme, the Germans immediately sent 60 heavy
 Guns and two infantry divisions to the Somme.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
Tactical improvement:
\series default
 The Brits learnt that communication was critical to the success to remote
 attacks.
 They mastered the creeping barrage when they applied radio.
 At Bazentin Ridge on 14th July, the BEF used a hurricane bombardment (a
 wave of intense, strong and quick bombardment instead of classical, long-lastin
g bombardments) and creeping barrage (they were better at) on a narrower
 front to achieve their initial objectives.
 
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsubsection
The Significance of Douglas Haig
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Initial failure
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The artillery was failing to destroy the barbed wires and other trench defences.
 ⅓ of the shells didn’t detonate and the artilleries were neither the right
 type.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The artillery mismatched the speed of the marching soldiers and even destroyed
 some British troops, as it assumed the infantry to move 55 yards a minute.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Replacing cover and fire using human wave tactics was a failure.
 55,000 of the 120,000 attackers were killed and wounded on the first day
 as they were overloaded with 60 pounds of equipment and totally exposed
 under machine gun fire when the unsuccessful barrage have ended.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The creeping barrage was also a disaster.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Haig’s leadership were responsible for the allied failure to reach significant
 breakthroughs.
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Haig again launched small uncoordinated attacks that was defeated independently
 by the German strong point defences.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The ground commanders couldn’t hold their gains, because they have to wait
 for the slow and inefficient orders from their superiors, while the Germans
 were allowed to make independent decisions.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Haig chose to stretch a 25 km long front, spreading and weakening the troops
 attacking from one point.
 The British only made to the fourth line (of six) of German defences and
 it cost them 450,000 casualties.
 In total they had advanced 7 miles
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Attrition of Germany
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Despite the allies had suffered more casualties, their attacks did became
 more efficient, that the Germans still spent significant manpower to delay
 the British so that they could enter a defensive position.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
War of attrition led to huge numbers of German casualties (500,000 by November
 1916) that severely weakened their position and strength.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Many junior officers killed
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Manpower crisis in Germany: At the end of 1916 the British and French outnumbere
d the Germans 169-127 Divisions on the Western Front, which also created
 a significant pressure among the German army, and it held the Germans down
 to its limits that it was starting to defence in full scale.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Successful German defences.
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
They practiced moving their machine guns from 30 foot(10m) under the ground
 to the parapet of the trenches and they can get into battle condition in
 about 60 seconds.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Germans continued to improve their machine gun positions throughout the
 battle even under attack.
 German commanders produced reports on each engagement and were expected
 to criticize their performance.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Consequently, they soon adapted to the new allied tactics before the allies
 could even conduct them smoothly.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The frontline was extended into no-man’s land with machine gun posts set
 up in shell holes.
 This means that they were able to cover in all directions in the no-man’s
 land.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Men were camouflaged in no-mans-land which caused confusion.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
They now had a zonal defensive system which made it hard for the British
 artillery to target any sort of front line.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
German aircrafts - Albatros fighter nullified the British 3-1 advantage.
 British & French were slow to adapt to the Flying Circus and the German
 innovative model of squadrons.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Despite the disaster at the Somme and Passchendaele Haig showed himself
 a capable commander in 1918.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Section
Non-European Land Fronts (New for 2024)
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
Canadian Involvement
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
66,000 deaths and 172,000 wounded out of 238,000 casualties out of 650,000
 soldiers 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
First major action at Second Battle of Ypres on April 22, 1915 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Battle of the Somme: At Beaumont Hamel, the 1st Newfoundland Regiment, attached
 to a British division, was cut down on 1 July by German machine-gun fire
 as it attacked over open ground.
 Within 30 minutes, the regiment suffered a crippling 324 killed and 386
 wounded out of a total of 801 soldiers.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
The Battle of Vimy Ridge
\series default
 (9–12 April 1917) was the first time that all four Canadian divisions fought
 together.
 The battle was carefully planned, with extensive mines, reconnaissance
 from the air and trench raiding in advance.
 Despite significant German resistance, the Canadians used tanks, a creeping
 barrage and effective infantry tactics to capture the ridge.
 There were 10 600 casualties.
 The Germans casualty count may have been as high as 85 000.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Medical care: In 1915, Canadian medical units consisting of more than 2,800
 Nursing Sisters went to the Mediterranean front to support British forces
 fighting in Gallipoli, Salonika, and Egypt.
 The Canadian Army Medical Corps eventually established five stationary
 hospitals in the region, with medical personnel working in terrible conditions
 that included extreme temperatures and restricted access to supplies.
 Almost 1,500 Canadians served in the Mediterranean region between 1915
 and 1917, primarily assisting patients suffering from battle wounds and
 disease.
 They played a crucial role in supporting the British.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Second Battle of Ypres: During a German gas attack at the Second Battle
 of Ypres, the French were the hardest-hit by the chlorine gas and thus
 retreated, exposing the Canadian left flank, thus threatening the destruction
 of the entire allied position in the salient.
 From 22 April to 25 April, the Canadians fought tenaciously to defend this
 exposed position.
 Outnumbered, outgunned, and outflanked, on the 24th they faced a second,
 this time direct, chlorine gas attack.
 The Canadians counterattacked to stall the German advance, and then slowly
 gave ground, buying precious time for British troops to be rushed forward.
 The Canadians had 6,000 casualties over the four-day battle but did indeed
 gain a tough and dependable reputation and were arguably important in helping
 the British.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Third Battle of Ypres: 
\series bold
TODO
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Canadian troops also played a leading role in the 
\series bold
Hundred Days offensives
\series default
 of 1918.
 By that time, the Canadian Corps numbered over 100 000 men.
 The Canadians often led the attacks in this final period of the war, suffering
 over 30 000 casualties between mid-August and mid-October 1918.
 More than 60 600 Canadian soldiers died during the war.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
Indian Involvement
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1.5 million Indian soldiers forming 10 devisions served
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
138,000 to France, mostly at Ypres and Somme 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
637,000 to Mesopotamia 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
144,000 to Egypt, Palestine, Aden, East Africa, Gallipoli and Salonika 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The numbers don't seem to add up but whatever 
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
In August 1914, soon after the outbreak of war when the British Expeditionary
 Force had been almost wiped out, Britain called on the Indian Army to fill
 the vital gap left in its defenses.
 The first 28,500 Indian Army troops arrived on the Western Front on September
 26.
 They played a crucial role in holding the line and are said to have arrived
 just ‘in the nick of time’.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
72,000 deaths 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
\begin_inset Quotes eld
\end_inset

Britain couldn't have come through the wars if they hadn't had the Indian
 Army.
\begin_inset Quotes erd
\end_inset

 —Sir Claude Auchinleck 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Indian soldiers won 11 Victoria Cross awards 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
100 million pounds were gifted by India to Britain to help pay for the war
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Provided the British with 170,000 animals, mostly horses 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Britain promised Indian independence if they helped Britain fight in the
 war, but this promise was of course never actually fulfilled which would
 further stimulate Gandhi's independence movement 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The War in East Africa
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Occ by G, border B, Bel, Portug
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Berlin Agreement / Congo Act of 1885 – governors of colonies wanna avoid
 war
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
G General Lettow-Vorbeck: 11k askaris & 3k Germans
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1914/08–09: G guerrilla B, Uganda and Kenya, B diverts resources Europe
 to Africa 
\begin_inset Note Note
status open

\begin_layout Plain Layout

\lang english
How many
\end_layout

\end_inset


\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Tanga
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
B commanded sea, could reinforce; G outnumbered, switched to Guerilla, raids
 Kenya and Zambia
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
G cruiser Königsberg attacked costal allied shipping, sank in 1915/07f
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1916/03, General Jan Smuts ctrl allied forces, brought South African troops
 (SWAf campaign finished); used Carrier Corps (lack of railways and roads)
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1916/05–08: Some allied advances, took Dar es Salaam to Dodoma railway
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
B forces closed in in 1917 and 1918
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Lettow-Vorbeck was still raiding after the Armistice; he heard of the Armistice
 from a British PoW, and surrendered his remaining 1500 soldiers on 1918/11/25,
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Total C: 10k B, 2k G, 100k East African; thousands civ
\end_layout

\begin_layout Paragraph
Tanga
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
B + Indian force, Major-General Arthur Aitken, landed @ Tanga, 1914/11/03;
 no attempt to conceal
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Lettow-Vorbeck reinforced def
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Aitken's poorly trained Indian troops panicked and ran under fire; driven
 back to boats, re-embarked 1914/11/5
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
C: 150G, 850BI; G captured 600k rounds of ammo and hundreds of rifles and
 machine guns
\end_layout

\begin_layout Paragraph
Disease
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1916/02
\begin_inset ERT
status open

\begin_layout Plain Layout


\backslash
textrightarrow
\end_layout

\end_inset

08, 9th South African Infantry 1135 
\begin_inset ERT
status open

\begin_layout Plain Layout


\backslash
textrightarrow{}
\end_layout

\end_inset

 116, hardly engaged enemy
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Allied war loss : allied disease loss = 1 : 30
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Askaris resistant to local diseases
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Smuts replaced SA & Indian troops with Africans
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The War in South-west Africa
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
South African colonial troops; aim: neutralize potential for G naval base,
 rm G radio transmitters that could aid raiding British shipping
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1914/09/18: 1800 SA troops occ Lüderitz
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Maritz Rebellion / Third Boer War: 12k rebels, against B due to the Second
 Boer War in 1902; init by Lieutenant-Colonel Manie Maritz; quelled 1915/02
 by General Jan Smuts and General Louis Botha
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1915/02/late: 60k SA adv, vs 6k G colonial soldiers, led by SA prime minister
 Botha: wide outflanking fast-moving units, confused and divided G forces
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Battle of Gibeon: 1915/04/27, SA troops occupied capital Windhoek, G corned
 north-west of the territory, surrendering at Khorab on 1915/07/09 after
 being defeated at Otavi on 1915/07/01
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
First major allied success in WWI
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The Siege of Tsingtao
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Background
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Tsingtao was leased to Germany as a colony by the Qing government after
 the murder of two German missionaries in the 19th century.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Germany built a port and naval base at Tsingtao, garrisoned by 4,000 troops.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Two weeks before Japan declares war on Germany, on August 16, 1914, Japanese
 general Kamio was instructed by the Japanese government to prepare for
 sieging Tsingtao.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
One day prior to the declaration, the Japanese Prime Minister sent an ultimatum
 to the German government, ordering them to surrender Tsingtao to Japanese
 control which was refused as expected.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The siege
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
On September 2, 1914, German gunboat Jaguar sank the stranded Japanese destroyer
 Shriotaye.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Kamio’s 18th Division of 23,000 soldiers backed by 142 guns began a bombardment
 of the port.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Britain was unsure of Japanese intentions but were interested in wearing
 down the Germans, and thus sent 1,500 troops to assist and supervise the
 Japanese.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Kamio’s attack took use of night raids but also used frontal attacks such
 as on September 27.
 The Germans used four Maxim machine guns, inflicting Japanese casualties.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
On 17 October, the German torpedo boat S-90 slipped out of Tsingtao's harbor
 and fired a torpedo which sank the Japanese cruiser Takachiho with the
 loss of 271 personnel, but the boat itself ran out of fuel and was scuttled.
 Tiger, Kaiserin Elisabeth and Jaguar subsequently were scuttled too.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The Germans were outnumbered by 6 to 1 but held out for over two months
 before finally surrendering on November 7 and handing over the port on
 November 10.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Aftermath
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
As the German garrison was able to hold out for 2 months despite the naval
 blockade and being outnumbered, this defeat served as a morale booster.
 There were 733 deaths out of 2015 Japanese casualties, 12 deaths out of
 65 British casualties, and 199 deaths out of 703 German casualties.
 German prisoners were treated well and with respect in Japan such as in
 the Brandō prisoner-of-war camp and were repatriated after 1920.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
Japanese Naval Assistance
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
This section should include 
\series bold
The Siege of Tsingtao
\series default
 and 
\series bold
Japanese Naval Assistance
\series default
 but these topics were in the specimen paper… so I'll assume that we won't
 be tested on these in the May 2024 exam session.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard

\series bold
TODO:
\series default
 Remember to finish this section before distribution.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The Arab Revolt
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Jane 5 1916
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
commanded by Sharif Hussein ibn Ali’s sons, the emirs Ali and Feisal
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
attacked the Ottoman garrison at Medina
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
to seize the holy city and its railway station
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Jane 8
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
After three days (June 8 1916) the Arabs broke off their attacks
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
the commander of the 12,000-strong Ottoman garrison, General Fakhri Pasha,
 sent Turkish troops out of the city to pursue the retreating rebels
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
June 10
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Sharif Hussein ibn Ali publicly proclaimed the revolt on 10 June in Mecca
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
More successful there, seizing the city and forcing the small Ottoman garrison
 to seek refuge in the local fortress
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Another of Hussein’s sons, Emir Abdullah, surrounded and besieged the town
 of Ta’if.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
More
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Rebel clans allied to Sharif Hussein attacked Jiddah and other ports along
 the Arabian coast of the Red Sea
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Both sides recognized the importance of the Red Sea ports
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
British immediately dispatched a naval flotilla - including the seaplane
 carrier HMS Ben-My-Chree – to support the Arab forces
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The ships bombarded Turkish fortifications and aircraft from Ben-My-Chree
 attacked Turkish troops in the field, disrupting their efforts to defeat
 the advancing rebels on the landward approaches.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
End of July
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Ports of Jiddah, Yanbu and Rabegh were in Arab hands
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Allowing the British to greatly increase their supply of arms and equipment
 to the Arab forces in the Hejaz
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Control of the ports also allowed the landing of the first units of the
 Arab Regular Army – Ottoman Army soldiers captured by the British at Gallipoli,
 in Mesopotamia or the Sinai, who had subsequently volunteered to fight
 for the Arab nationalist cause.
 They wore British uniforms with Arab head-dress, and were equipped with
 modern weapons like heavy machine guns and artillery.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
An artillery battery and technical specialists from the Egyptian Army provided
 further support.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The British Army dispatched its own military mission to liaise between the
 Arab leadership and the British high command in Egypt.
 This mission, which from October 1916 included Lieutenant T.E.
 Lawrence – better known to posterity as Lawrence of Arabia – would increase
 in size and capability as the war went on.
 This assistance, especially the artillery, gave the Arab forces the means
 to finish off the Ottoman garrisons under siege at Mecca and Ta’if.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Rest of 1916
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Sharif Hussein ibn Ali spent the rest of 1916 consolidating his hold on
 the Hejaz and the coastal ports, building up his army, and fending off
 Turkish counter-attacks.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
June 1917
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Lawrence led a group of Feisal’s men on a daring raid to capture the last
 remaining Ottoman Red Sea port, Aqaba
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Aqaba became the new base for Feisal’s army, renamed the ‘Arab Northern
 Army’.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Attacks on the railway continued, and now extended as far north as southern
 Jordan
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
September 1918
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
They played a valuable role in Allenby’s final offensive, which culminated
 in the Battle of Meggido in September 1918, by attacking the key rail junction
 at Deraa and elsewhere.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
A month later the Ottoman Empire agreed to an armist
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Significances/Effect:
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Complimented wider Allied efforts in Egypt-Palestine while it also drew
 Ottoman forces away from the Mesopotamian (Iraq) front.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Allies faced their own internal revolt of Arab tribesmen in the form of
 the Senussi Rebellion of 1915-17.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Decisive in the operational sense: Ottoman forces had been defeated in the
 Egypt-Palestine-Arabia theatre.
 (although the process had taken longer than any British general had initially
 expected) ← Arabs participated significantly in the war
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
Gallipoli
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Heavy Casualties 
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The ANZAC and the Allies
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
Figures vary according to sources.
 However the following figures seem to be generally accepted and give a
 fairly accurate idea of the extent of the cost in human lives.
 Roughly half a million Allied soldiers took part in the Gallipoli Campaign.
 The number of soldiers wounded or killed among British (and Dominions)
 and French forces amounted to around 141,500 (114,500 and 27,000 respectively).
 About 34,150 British and Dominions soldiers and an estimated 10,000 French
 soldiers died during the campaign.
 There were also 4,599 among Indian troops, including 1,358 deaths and 142
 casualties among soldiers from Newfoundland, 49 of whom were killed.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
For Australia, as for many nations, the First World War remains the most
 costly conflict in terms of casualties.
 From a population of fewer than five million, 416,809 men enlisted: over
 61,522 were killed and 156,000 wounded, gassed, or taken prisoner.
 It is estimated that 664 Australian officers and 17,260 men were wounded
 and 8,709 were killed during the Gallipoli Campaign.
 The whole Gallipoli operation therefore claimed around 26,000 Australian
 lives.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
During the First World War, 18,500 New Zealanders were killed, 12,483 of
 whom died on the Western Front, and around 50,000 were wounded.
 2,779 were killed during the Gallipoli Campaign, which amounted roughly
 to one-fifth of the New Zealanders who were involved in the campaign.
 About 3,100 of the 14,000 New Zealanders who served on Gallipoli landed
 in April and more than 4,852 were wounded during the whole campaign.
 New Zealand casualties therefore totalled around 7,500 men.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The Ottoman Empire
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
Even though the number of Turkish casualties has been disputed, it is clear
 that victory came at a high price for the Ottoman Empire, which may have
 lost up to 87,000 men during the campaign.
 Another 165,000 were wounded, out of a total of 400,000 soldiers involved.
 Many Turkish army divisions had to be rebuilt from scratch in 1916.
 Total casualties may have amounted to more than 250,000.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
All in all, by the time the Gallipoli Campaign ended, more than 130,000
 men had been killed and 262,000 wounded.
 In total, there were just under 400,000 casualties during the campaign.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Significant in nationhood and national consciousness of New Zealand and
 Australia.
 (this point could not be used if the question asks for the importance in
 terms of “the course of the war”) The significance of the Gallipoli campaign
 is felt strongly in both Australia and New Zealand, despite their being
 only a portion of the Allied forces; the campaign is regarded in both nations
 as a "baptism of fire" and had been linked to their emergence as independent
 states.
 Approximately 50,000 Australians served at Gallipoli and from 16,000 to
 17,000 New Zealanders.
 It has been argued that the campaign proved significant in the emergence
 of a unique Australian identity following the war, which has been closely
 linked to popular conceptualisations of the qualities of the soldiers that
 fought during the campaign, which became embodied in the notion of an "Anzac
 spirit".
 
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Section
The Sea, the Home Front, and the East
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The Battle of Jutland
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
In an attempt to end British control of the sea and the blockade of Germany,
 Scheer planned to lure the British battle cruisers into a trap using his
 own cruiser fleet.
 British Admiral Jellicoe, commander of the British Grand Fleet, had decoded
 the German message and come up with a plan of his own.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
On 31st May 1916, Beatty arrived first off the coast of Jutland because
 his ships were faster and he had less distance to travel.
 His cruisers fought against the German cruisers led by Hipper.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
It soon became clear that the Germans could fire they guns more accurately
 and that there was something seriously wrong with the British ships.
 The armour plating on the gun turrets was too thin, which meant that they
 were easily destroyed by direct hits.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Two British cruisers blew up and at that moment the great battleships of
 Scheer’s fleet arrived.
 Beatty was in trouble and he steered north to lure Scheer towards Jellicoe’s
 fleet.
 The Germans followed the trap as Jellicoe’s fleet of dreadnoughts opened
 fire.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Scheer and Hipper, realising they had sailed into a trap, turned for home
 as night began to fall.
 Jellicoe did not chase them until it was too late.
 By morning, the Germans had escaped safely to port.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard

\series bold
Who won?
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The Germans had the best exchanges but the British fleet was simply too
 large.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Britain = 14 ships sunk, 6094 killed, 674 wounded, 177 captured.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Germany = 11 ships sunk, 2551 killed, 507 wounded.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Britain Won = The Germans had fled the battle and the German navy rarely
 went to sea again, leaving the British blockade untouched.
 A US newspaper said of the battle, ‘The German fleet has assaulted its
 jailor, but it is still in jail.’ The Germans was forced to resort to unrestrict
ed U-boat warfare, which brought the USA into the war.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Germany won if you really want to argue for this = The German inflicted
 the greater losses and the British suffered heavier casualties.
 German gunnery and ship design was also shown to be far better in battle.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The British Blockade
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Probably the most important aspect of the war.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
B declared North Sea a war zone, sent navy
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
British control, even after Jutland
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
95% of G imports: food or nitrate fertilizers
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1917/End: No coal, steel, metals, oil, rubbers 
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
Shortage of soap/sanitary w/ Spanish flu
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Lack consumer goods e.g.
 blankets, discontent/mutiny
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
1000kcal/day, very insufficient, 15–20% weight loss
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
Meat: 1914 2.3lb/capita to 1917 0.3lb/capita
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Sausages were only 5% meat
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
50 food riots in 1916
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Black markets with 10x prices
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1915 civilian deaths: 88k
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
1918: 293k
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Total: 775k
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Lack of supply during Spring Offensive, loot villages
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The U-boat Campaign
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Britain's food – imported wheat
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
Unrestricted re-initiated 1917/02
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Sunk 1.9Mt in 1917/03–05
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
British panic at 6 weeks reserves
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Meat rationed in 1918
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Lusitania (128 US) triggered US entry
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
Diplomatic relationship broke 3 days later
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Housatonic (US merchant) sunk hours later
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Sped up German defeat / fresh US soldiers
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Ineffective against convoys
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
39/219 Atlantic convoys sighted in 1917/10–11
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Difficult to attack, many depth charges
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Other British anti-U-boat countermeasures
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
1918/01: 100 airships, 23 planes, 291 seaplanes
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Loss of U-boats
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
Doubled in 1967/6–12, not replaced due to Blockade
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Incompetent crew, some in 1918/04 not hitting any
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
MUCH less effective than the British Blockade
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The Battle of Tannenberg
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Background and Preparation:
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Major battle that happened at the start of the first world war on the Eastern
 front during August 26-30th, 1914.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Russian first and second armies invaded east Prussia and advanced towards
 Germany in mid-August.
 This was a surprise for the Germans as it didn’t go like what the Schlieffen
 Plan assumed.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Commander of the German 8th Army Maximilian von Prittwitz has been planning
 to retreat before the Russian advance, but Herman von Francois, a corps
 commander, attacked Paul von Rennenkampf’s Russian first army at 20th August,
 1914.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Main battles:
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Hindenburg and Ludendorff decided to encircle their his Russian 2nd Army
 when it kept pushing to the front, assembling on their flanks.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
22 August: Samsonov's forces encountered Germans all along their front and
 pushed them back in several places
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
23rd and 24th: Pushed the German XX Corps back.
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The German generals planned the encirclement with information from Russian
 radio intercepts, captured maps and fleeing German civilians
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
25th: Germans captured Seeben in the south and kept advancing in the following
 days.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The infantry divisions in the north fell back with heavy losses, but Von
 Below and Mackensen’s corps further north were able to disarray Blagoveschensky
’s and inflict some losses.
 Von Below went on to take Allenstein, Mackensen pursued.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
28th Rennenkampf advanced towards the German’s rear, but Hindenburg asserted
 that the plan should be executed.
 This time the German’s advanced in both south and north, forcing Samsonov
 to retreat and half of the German encirclement was complete by the end
 of the day
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
29th: The encirclement was completed, all troops from the Russian 2nd Army
 retreating south ran into the German line and were pounded by artillery.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
30th: attempts to break the line from outside failed, 3 Russian corps were
 destroyed and 2 retreated to Poland, Samsonov committed suicide
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
How the battle concluded:
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Concluded with a decisive victory for the German army.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The Russian army suffered a significant loss, with over 30,000 soldiers
 killed and around 95,000 taken as prisoners of war.
 In contrast, the German army lost only around 10,000 soldiers.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
German army captured over 500 artillery pieces, 50 machine guns, and vast
 quantities of ammunition and supplies from the Russian army.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Boosted the morale of the German army and the country.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Marked the beginning of the German Empire's domination on the eastern front
 of the war.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Showcased the strength and effectiveness of the German army's military tactics,
 which ultimately led to their victory.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
The Brusilov Offensive
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Battle Plan
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Allies decided to form an offensive to divert part of German’s attention
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The first offensive was plotted to be launched at River Somme but turned
 out to be a failure where the Russians came in defeat to Germany.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
General Alexei Brusilov, after the offensive, pressured others that he shall
 lead an offensive at the north side and guaranteed it to work.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Britain, France, and Russia agreed to coordinate their attack in 1916
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Meant to increase German pressure and relief French pressure at Verdun
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Process:
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The offensive started on June 4, 1916, with soldiers carrying nearly 2,000
 guns along a 200-mile-long front from the region in the foothills of the
 Carpathian Mountains.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Russian led its troops and attacked the line of Austria-Hungary on the first
 day.
 It was very successful at first and was a crippling blow for Austro-Hungary.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The Russian forces pushed forward 80 km and took 200,000 prisoners in the
 first two weeks.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Challenges to logistics brought a halt to the advance at late June
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
After the Germans had sent their reinforcements, the Russians who were already
 overstretched were outnumbered by the Central Powers and suffered severe
 casualties.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Outcome:
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
1,400,000 casualties from Austria-Hungary, 640,000 casualties from Russia,
 and 350,000 casualties from Germany
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Caused large numbers of German troops to move away from Verdun while bringing
 Romania into the war.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Austro-Hungarian forces were generally exhausted and unable to fight
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
The German Home Front
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Food Rationing and the British Blockade
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
British Naval Blockade started March 11th, 1915
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Production based on Nitrogen-based fertilizers needed to be imported (scarce
 as it can also be used to make explosives)
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
German agriculture inefficient (210 acres / Worker)
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Complicated rationing introduced in January 1915
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Common malnutrition, calorie intake down to 800 Cal/day in city
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Weekly meat supply per capita decreased from 2.3 pounds to 0.3 pounds
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
15% - 20% Average weight loss
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Black markets flourished
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Potatoes in short supply in 1916
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Turnip winter 1916-1917 - German civilians in the city only had turnips
 (originally used to feed pigs) to eat
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Estimated of 775,000 German civilians dead due to naval blockade
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
50 food riots in 1916, increased in 1917 and 1918
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Daily Item Shortages: Soap, Sanitary supplies shortage
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Spanish flu
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Coal, steel, oils non-existent in end of 1917, Unable to provide warmth
 / energy
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Shortage of consumer goods e.g.
 shoes, blankets, clothes
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Economical Issues
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Germany ($61 billions spent on war) weaker than the allies ($147 billions
 spent on war)
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Can not supply significant resources
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Inflation more significant (11x in Germany compared to 2x in France and
 Britain during the war time)
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Failure of government to return debts as they did not raise tax but wanted
 to use the reparations if they won the war to pay back
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Mutinies (Should be in Chapter 4)
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Workers in Berlin demanded higher pay, shorter hours, and adequate food
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
April 16th, 1917, 220,000 workers initiated non-violent demonstrations in
 Berlin
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Kiel Mutiny (November 3rd, 1918)
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Sailors refuse orders to the sea of a suicidal battle
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Revolutionary fervor and Bolshevist-style uprisings erupt in cities of Munich,
 Stuttgart, and Berlin
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Nonvember 9th, under increasing revolutionary pressure, Prince Max handed
 power to Friedrich Ebert 
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
The British Home Front
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Defence of the Realm Act (DORA)
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
DORA authorized the government to nationalize industries, enforce censorship,
 publish propagandas and granted significant powers to the British government
 in terms of people’s daily lives.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
DORA allowed the British government to hide the horrific conditions of trench
 warfare or the embarrassing losses at Gallipoli, as examples, from the
 populace.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
These unprecedented governmental interventions into free speech effectively
 hid from the recruits the true horrible conditions that they were about
 to enter.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Shortage of supplies
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Limited food – imports sank by U-boats, internally farmers are being conscripted
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Only six weeks of food reserves at one point (when?)
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Rationing was introduced in 1917 – meat and bread; extension to butter,
 jam and tea in 1918; food coupons
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
U-boats sunk 550,000 tonnes of goods in Mar and 841,000 in Apr.
 In total, within the 3 months of unrestricted warfare, 1.9 million tonnes
 had been lost for England.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
However, the overwealming majority of British populace never endured starvation,
 vegetables were never rationed
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The Role of Women
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Pressure men
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
White Feathers and Mothers Union shamed men into joining the military
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Inflame sexual anxiety in British men by hinting that if Germans won the
 war their women would be "raped" by this "barbous nation"
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Women's Auxiliary Army Corps took many non-fighting professions (no equiv
 in Germany)
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Agriculture
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
Women's Land Army and Women's Forestry Corps help agricultural work.
 Helped with threat of food shortages from U-boats by susbituting conscripted
 farmer men.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
113k in 1917.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Weapon and ammunition factories
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
5M women in British industrial occupations in 1918
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Terrible working conditions – 12 /day, dangerous conditions including chemical
 and physical hazards
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Conscription
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
After the BEF ran out of men in 1914
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Section
Ending the War, 1918
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The United States
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard

\series bold
Reasons for joining
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
1917/01: Zimmerman telegram
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
AZ, NM, TX promised to Mexico
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
1917/02: UK releases to US, US outraged
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
U-boats e.g.
 128 on Lusitania
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
Sussex Pledge rescinded 1917/01
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Three streamers sunk 1917/03, Wilson asked Congress for war
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Broke diplomatic relationship 1917/02/03
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
German atrocities e.g.
 6k Bel executed, 16k houses destroyed, 51 Zeppelin 1800, gas
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Public opinion
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Economic interest: $2.3B lent to Allies
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard

\series bold
Importance
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
300k/y G replacements vs 150k/mo well-nutritioned US
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Morale actually important during the Spring Offensive
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Ludendorff didn't expect US troops in the spring
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Standard
Led under Foch, cohesive performance
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
Secured railroad at Belleau Wood
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
86k in 2nd Marne
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard
1918/09: 243k in Hundred Days at St.
\begin_inset space ~
\end_inset

Mihiel
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Spent $35B in 2 years, > G's $32B in 4 years, economy
\end_layout

\begin_layout Standard

\series bold
Less significant
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Only 130k soldiers when joining in 1917/04
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Won't allow fighting in B/F units at first
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
113k deaths throughout war, less than Bek/Mont
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Inexperienced tactics: Taking Metz to cut comms?
\end_layout

\begin_layout Subsection
The Brusilov Offensive
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Background
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk freed the German troops at Eastern front
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
500,000 soldiers were sent to western front
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The shortage of manpower: 127: 164 divisions in 1917 changed into 192:156
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Allied blockade kept German civil population starving
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Imminent arrival of American forces
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
General Ludendorff believed that this is the only chance of breaking through
 the allied defense line
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Decided to attack where British and French forces met to create chaos
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
New tactic of infiltration, involving stormtroopers bypassing trenches and
 disrupting logistics to cause panic
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Process
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Started with Operation Michael
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Attack started March 21, 1918, with artillery, poison gas, then infantry
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Allied line was broken due to sophisticated German plan – infiltration
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
General Foch led the allies and reunited their army
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Germany won the first three assaults
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Germans advanced to Aisne in late may and Marne on June 5th
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
However, German morale significantly weakened due to the tough allied defense
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Though land was gained 600,000 German casualties were lost in the first
 three battles alone
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
At the second battle of marne, the German advance was halted
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Germany unable to supply resources to the front line
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Soldiers with malnutrition is badly coordinated (Wasted time in robbing
 shops)
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Deserters told the German plan to allies
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Casualties at Second Battle of the Marne: Britain 13,000 ; France 95,000
 ; Germany 168,000 ; America 12,000
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
880,000 casualties through the whole course
\begin_inset Note Note
status open

\begin_layout Plain Layout
On 29th September 1918, the Allies penetrated the line, therefore pushing
 the war from one of attrition to one of movement, which played into the
 hands of the Allies due to their superiority in resources as a result of
 the British Naval Blockade and America’s entry.
 In 1918, Germany had only 23,000 iron-rimmed trucks against 100,000 British
 rubber rimmed and only 10 tanks against 800.
 The Allies also outnumbered the Germans in Artillery by 18000 to 14500
 and in aircraft by 4500 to 3760.
 Its advantage in open warfare became obvious in later counter attacks such
 as the Battle of Cambrai, where the Allied manpower outnumbered Germany
 by 750,000 to 180,000.
 Hence, with the Hindenburg Line breached, the German Army’s last realistic
 hope of countering the Allies vanished as their supplies were no match.
 This caused Germany to retreat on a full scale on 9th October and ask for
 an armistice.
 
\end_layout

\end_inset


\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Retreat & Outcome
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The Germans lost the Hindenburg line and the front line was overstretched
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
French General Fock coordinated a counterattack
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
German morale was low and resources are depleted
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
July 18th, Germans halted their attack
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
July 22nd, Germans on full retreat
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
August 3rd, Germans were on their original location before the offensive
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Germany unable to afford a future battle, no point in victory
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
The Ludendorff/Spring Offensive
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
Lack of resources
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
The exhaustion of German manpower and resources at the Spring Offensive
 predetermined its surrender in 1918.
 The use of Germany’s best troops in an advance capacity meant they would
 suffer higher casualties, while the quality of rear defensive positions
 was weakened as they were stripped of their best personnel to provide the
 stormtroopers.
 Hence, the total operational strength of the German Army decreased from
 5.1 million to 4.2 million after the battle, while only 300,000 recruits
 were available for the remainder of the year and were undernourished.
 Although the Allied Forces also endured high casualties estimated at 900,000,
 they were replaceable as the American military and industrial power was
 brought to bear.
 The USA was sending 140,000 troops a month as well as further British and
 French recruits.
 Moreover, the British were producing 10,000 machine guns a month, 1915
 artillery pieces, and 100 tanks.
 This is nowhere near what the Germans captured or destroyed.
 Germany, with the majority of its best troops and weapons drained, lost
 its capacity to withstand or initiate another attack.
 Whereas the Allied ascendency in resources allowed it to launch the 100
 Days Offensive, which ended the war with a comprehensive German military
 defeat, forcing Germany to surrender.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize

\series bold
Morale
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Operation Michael began on 21st March 1918.
 They breached the British line at several points and advanced 8km on the
 first day.
 Two days later, the British Fifth Army was in full retreat.
 The initial success of the operation boosted Germany’s morale.
 However, the German army lost its momentum in the later phases due to logistica
l failures.
 The continuous Allied counterattack disheartened the Germans, inflicting
 nearly 700,000 casualties.
 In July, a devastating counteroffensive pushed Germany back to its original
 position before the Spring Offensive.
 Germany’s morale thus dropped tremendously, causing alcohol abuse, shirking,
 and desertion to become a feature of the German army.
 Merely a few German soldiers genuinely believed in a victory.
 As a result, the severely demoralized German Army was no longer reliable,
 meaning that its defeat at the Hundred Days Offensive was destined, which
 then forced Germany to ask for an armistice.
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
The Hundred Days
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Background: German failure in the Ludendorff offensive
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Stage 1: Push the salients back to Hindenburg line
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Foch decided to use a series of limited attacks in quick succesion to divert
 German attention and resources
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
July 18th, Aisne-Marne offensive
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
August 8th, the Battle of Amiens broke through German lines
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
'The black day of German army' - 27,000 casualties, 12,000 surrender - 9
 miles in one day
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
September 12-13th, the final German salient of St.
 Mihiel was cleared out
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
German forces retreated to Hindenburg line
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Stage 2: Break the Hindenburg line
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Tripple Offensive strategy used
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Northern part: British + French + Belgians - Menin Road Ridge, Passchendaele
 Ridge
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Advanced a total of 50 miles before armistice
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Central part: British (Haig) + French - Battle of Cambrai - St.
 Quetin
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
33,000 Prisoners in one day
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Southern part: French + Americans - Meuse River - Argonne Forest Offensive
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
23,000 Prisoners in first day
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
October 3rd, the Germans were pushed out from their reserve lines by the
 central attack, Hindenburg line breached
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
German offered tough resistance during this process, however unable to face
 strong well-supplied allied attack with high morale
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
What happened in Germany?
\end_layout

\begin_deeper
\begin_layout Itemize
Bulgaria, Turkey, Austro-hungaria subsequently left the war
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Kaiser believed that the war could not end until Germany won again, in order
 to gain bargaining room in armistice
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
(So) War continued despite disorder of troops, rebellion on the homefront
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
September 28th, Ludendorff was in serious outrage
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
October 3rd, Kaiser changed Germany into democracy, hoping to end the war
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
November 10th, Willhelm II exiled to Netherlands
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
November 11th, fighting stopped at Western front
\end_layout

\end_deeper
\begin_layout Subsection
The November Revolution
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
By September 1918, the Kaiser's army was becoming weaker by the day amid
 irreversible troop losses, declining discipline and battle-readiness due
 to exhaustion, illness, food shortages, desertions and drunkenness.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
The Allies offered peace but with the condition of Germany becoming more
 democratic.
 In October, the Kaiser refused to sign the armistice, which outraged the
 dispirited German soldiers, leading to the Kiel mutiny.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
This developed into an armed uprising on 3 November with 3000 sailors spreading
 the revolution amongst the 20,000 garrison troops and factory workers of
 the town as well as other naval bases.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
On 4 November, revolutionary fervor and Bolshevist-style uprisings erupted
 in German cities including Munich, Stuttgart, and Berlin.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
By 6 November, the revolution was spread to the soldiers on the Western
 Front.
 Under such a chaotic circumstance and fearing an imminent civil war, the
 Kaiser had little choice but to abdicate on November 9th, 1918, and a democrati
c German republic was proclaimed with Friedrich Ebert as the new provisional
 government.
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
On November 11th, the new government signed an armistice.
 The Kaiser’s abdication enabled the new government to sign the armistice
 with the Allies, thus ending Germany’s fighting in the First World War.
 
\end_layout

\begin_layout Itemize
Not that important — Germany was already militarily defeated, lacked resources,
 etc.
\end_layout

\end_body
\end_document